Unit 13 What Makes a Theory Scientific (Instead
of Just Opinion or Belief)
Science is the attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense­experiences correspond to a logically uniform system of
thought.
—Albert Einstein (1879­1955)
Science is built up with facts as a house is with stone, but a collection of facts is no more a science than a heap of stones is
a house.
—Henri Poincaré (1854­1912)
Three things are to be looked to in a building: that it stand on the right spot; that it be securely founded; that it be
successfully executed.
—Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749­1832)
In this unit, we consider the nature of scientific theories. Theories are not just ordered collections of facts, they are conceptual
structures—patterns of thought—that transcend and illuminate, but also filter and shape, the “content” to which they are
applied.
Historically, the late 16th century saw a radical change in the view of the significance of theory. In the earlier Aristotelian view,
the purpose of theory was as an aid to the contemplation of nature, through which a person nourished his or her spiritual
growth. Indeed, the Greek word theoria meant “vision.” Thus, a theory provided a person with a vision of the world.
Francis Bacon criticized the “empty” speculations of Aristotelian academics, and challenged the Aristotelian idea of the role of
theory. In Bacon’s view, the role of knowledge was to reduce human suffering. In modern society, with its emphasis on the
control of nature and the practical applications of scientific research, the Baconian view predominates. Advances in cognitive
science, however, are beginning to focus attention on the nature of mind, understanding and consciousness, a change that may
lead to a greater appreciation of the Aristotelian view.
A good expression of the Greek view is found in the works of Plato. In the Republic, the study of science, and in particular
mathematics, is suggested as the appropriate means of training the mind to rise from its concern with the mundane and
illusory world of experience to the realm of the transcendental ideas, such as Justice, Truth and Beauty. In the Symposium, this
same ascent is described in terms of an ever­widening appreciation of beauty. In each case, Plato claimed that the person who
had made this ascent had acquired the wisdom to govern both themselves and the political state.